Technical Documents - Documentos Técnicos Home


 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Technical Documents - Documentos Técnicos: Alternative energy. Power from Hydrogen Fusion - Energías alternativas. Energía de la fusión del hidrógeno.

www.photomobiware.com


Power from Hydrogen Fusion

Because of public concerns about nuclear fission in the United States, hydrogen fusion has been suggested as a way to take advantage of the properties of the atom in order to generate electricity. In theory, this is a great idea. Hydrogen fusion is more efficient in converting matter to energy than fission, and no radioactive waste is produced. But a workable hydrogen fusion reactor has not yet been developed.

FUSION IN THE SUN

Physicists believe that the sun converts hydrogen to helium by means of nuclear fusion. The term “fusion” means “combining.” Hydrogen fusion requires extremely high temperature. The powerful gravitation imposed by the sun’s huge mass keeps the core in a constantly compressed state. This compression keeps the core hot enough for hydrogen fusion to occur.

Solar hydrogen fusion is a multistep process. At first, two hydrogen nuclei (protons) are squeezed together, emitting a positron, also known as an anti-electron.

A positron has the same mass as an electron, but carries a unit positive charge rather than a unit negative charge. A neutrino is also emitted. Neutrinos are something like electrons with no electric charge and the ability to penetrate matter to an incredible extent. The fusing of two protons is attended by a loss of a unit positive charge; as a result, one of the protons becomes a neutron. This produces a nucleus of deuterium (H-2), a heavy isotope of hydrogen consisting of one proton and one neutron. The deuterium nucleus combines with another proton to form a nucleus of helium-3 (He-3), containing two protons and one neutron. As this happens, a burst of gamma radiation is emitted. Two He-3 nuclei, resulting from two separate iterations of the above-described process, then combine to form a nucleus of helium-4 (He-4), which has two protons and two neutrons. This is the isotope of helium we use to fill up lighter-than-air balloons. In this final phase, two protons are ejected. These can contribute to further fusion reactions.

In the solar fusion process (see figure ), the total mass of the matter produced is a little less than the total mass of all the ingredients. The “missing mass” is converted into energy according to the famous Einstein equation:

E=mc2

Figure 1. The hydrogen fusion process that takes place in the core of the sun.

where E is the energy in joules, m is the “missing mass” in kilograms, and c is the speed of light, equal to approximately 3 _ 108 meters per second. The sun produces a tremendous amount of energy in this way, because hydrogen nuclei are converted to helium nuclei continuously and in vast numbers. There is enough matter in the sun to keep its hydrogen fusion process going for millions of millennia yet to come.

Eventually the hydrogen fuel supply will run out, but not in your lifetime or mine!

FUSION IN BOMBS

In a hydrogen bomb, a different hydrogen fusion reaction takes place. This mode, if it can ever be controlled, may be used in a fusion reactor. Instead of simple hydrogen nuclei, which are protons, nuclei of heavy hydrogen merge. One nucleus is of deuterium (H-2), consisting of one proton and one neutron. The other nucleus is of tritium (H-3), which contains one proton and two neutrons. When these combine, the result is a nucleus of He-4, with the extra neutron ejected (see figure ).

Along with this, energy is liberated, just as is the case inside the sun. For this mode, called deuterium-tritium fusion or D-T fusion, deuterium and tritium fuel must be supplied. Ordinary hydrogen (H-1) won’t work. Several other fuel combinations can theoretically work for nuclear fusion, but the D-T mode has received the most attention.

Figure 2. The fusion process that occurs in a hydrogen bomb.

In the sun, the fusion process goes on continuously because of the heat produced by the crushing pressure of gravitation, and also because of the heat generated from the reactions themselves. In a hydrogen bomb, the necessary heat to start the reaction is supplied by a fission bomb, but the reaction burns itself out in a hurry. It’s impossible to get enough gravitation to start and maintain fusion indefinitely and in a controlled manner in a terrestrial sample of simple hydrogen, deuterium, or tritium. In order to make fusion work for the purpose of generating useful power, the fuel must somehow be confined.

PLASMA FUEL

When a sample of gas is heated to an extremely high temperature, the electrons are stripped away from the nuclei. The atoms therefore become ions. Instead of

“orbiting” the positively charged nucleus of a specific atom, an electron is “free” to move from atom to atom, or even to travel through space all by itself. When this ionization happens, the gas, which is normally a poor conductor of electric current, becomes a good conductor. A substance in this state is known as a plasma. Because a plasma differs from an ordinary gas, the plasma state has been called the fourth phase of matter (the other three being solid, liquid, and gas). In the prototypes of fusion reactors that most scientists favor, deuterium and tritium exist in the plasma state, heated to temperatures comparable to those in the cores of stars.

The behavior of a plasma can be dramatically affected by external electric or magnetic fields. An electric or magnetic field can cause a plasma to constrict, distort, bunch up, or spread out. If a plasma is surrounded by an external electric or magnetic field having certain properties, the plasma can be kept within a small, defined space, even if it becomes hot enough to sustain hydrogen fusion reactions. The external fields act on the plasma in much the same way as gravitation inside the sun keeps the hot core gases confined. The use of external magnetic fields to compress and hold a hot D-T plasma in place during a fusion reaction is known as magnetic confinement.

THE TOKAMAK

The most promising method of magnetic confinement makes use of an evacuated toroidal (donut-shaped) enclosure called a tokamak. This term is an acronym derived from a Russian descriptive phrase that translates as “toroidal chamber and magnetic coil.” The plasma is contained inside the tokamak. Two sets of coils, called the toroidal field coils and the poloidal field coils, surround the toroidal enclosure (see figure 3). The coils carry electric currents that produce strong magnetic fields.

An electric current of up to five million amperes (5,000,000 A), provided by a large transformer, travels through the plasma around the toroid in a circular, endless loop.

This plasma current creates a magnetic field of its own. The magnetic fields from the currents in the coils and the plasma interact, confining the plasma, aligning it within the tokamak chamber, and forcing it toward the center of the chamber cross section, keeping it away from the walls. This is important, because the plasma must be heated to more than 100 million degrees Celsius (100,000,000ºC) in order for fusion to occur! If the superheated plasma were to contact the tokamak wall at any point, the chamber would rupture, air would leak in, the plasma would cool below the critical temperature, and the fusion reaction would cease. The helium product of the fusion process is removed from the chamber by divertors.

Energía de la fusión del hidrógeno

Debido a preocupaciones públicas por la fisión nuclear en los Estados Unidos, se ha sugerido la fusión del hidrógeno como una manera de aprovechar las características del átomo para generar electricidad. En teoría, esto es una gran idea. La fusión del hidrógeno es más eficiente en convertir materia en energía que la fisión, y no se produce ningún desecho radioactivo. Pero un reactor de fusión hidrógeno realizable todavía no se ha desarrollado.

FUSIÓN EN EL SOL

Los físicos creen que el sol convierte el hidrógeno en helio por medio de la fusión nuclear. El término “fusión” significa “combinar.” La fusión del hidrógeno requiere una temperatura extremadamente alta. La poderosa gravitación impuesta por la masa enorme del sol mantiene al núcleo en un estado de compresión constante. Esta compresión mantiene al núcleo bastante caliente para que la fusión del hidrógeno ocurra.

La fusión solar del hidrógeno es un proceso de varias fases. Al principio, dos núcleos de hidrógeno (protones) se presionan fuertemente entre sí, emitiendo un positrón, también conocido como anti-electrón.

Un positrón tiene la misma masa que un electrón, pero lleva una unidad  de carga positiva en vez de una unidad de carga negativa. Un neutrino también es emitido. Los neutrinos son como electrones sin carga eléctrica y con la capacidad de penetrar la materia en un grado increíble. La fusión de dos protones es acompañada por una pérdida de una unidad de carga positiva; consecuentemente, uno de los protones se convierte en un neutrón. Esto produce un núcleo de deuterio (H-2), un isótopo pesado del hidrógeno que consiste en un protón y un neutrón. El núcleo de deuterio se combina con otro protón para formar un núcleo de helio-3 (He-3), conteniendo dos protones y un neutrón. Mientras que sucede esto, se emite una explosión de radiación gamma. Dos núcleos He-3, resultados de las dos iteraciones separadas del proceso descrito antes, se combinan luego para formar un núcleo de helio-4 (He-4), que tiene dos protones y dos neutrones. Éste es el isótopo de helio que utilizamos para llenar los globos menos pesados que el aire. En esta fase final, se expulsan dos protones. Éstos pueden contribuir a más reacciones de fusión posteriores.

En el proceso solar de la fusión (véase figura), la masa total de la materia producida es un poco menos que la masa total de todos los ingredientes. La “masa faltante” se convierte en energía según la famosa ecuación de Einstein:

E=mc2

( Ver figura lateral ) Figura 1: El proceso de la fusión del hidrógeno que tiene lugar en en núcleo del sol.

donde E es la energía en julios, m es la “masa faltante” en kilogramos, y c es la velocidad de la luz, iguala al  aproximadamente 3 108  metros por segundo. El sol produce una cantidad enorme de energía de esta manera, debido a que los núcleos de hidrógeno se convierten en  núcleos de helio continuamente y en grandes cantidades. Hay bastante materia en el sol para mantener su proceso de fusión de hidrógeno por millones de milenios todavía por venir.

¡Eventualmente el suministro de combustible de hidrógeno se acabará, pero no en el curso de su vida o la mía!

FUSIÓN EN BOMBAS

En una bomba de hidrógeno, una reacción diferente de fusión del hidrógeno ocurre. Este modo, si puede alguna vez ser controlado, puede ser utilizado en un reactor de fusión. En vez de los simples núcleos de hidrógeno, que son protones, núcleos de hidrógeno pesado se combinan. Un núcleo es de deuterio (H-2), consistiendo en un protón y un neutrón. El otro núcleo es de tritio (H-3), que contiene un protón y dos neutrones. Cuando éstos se combinan, el resultado es un núcleo de He-4, con el neutrón adicional expulsado (véase figura). Junto con esto, se libera  energía, al igual que en el caso dentro del sol. Para este modo, llamado fusión del deuterio-tritio o fusión D-T, combustible  de deuterio y tritio debe ser suministrado. El hidrógeno ordinario (H-1) no trabajaría. Varias otras combinaciones de combustible podrían trabajar teóricamente para la fusión nuclear, pero el modo D-T ha recibido la mayor atención.

( Ver figura lateral ) - Figura 2: el proceso de fusión que ocurre en una bomba de hidrógeno.

En el sol, el proceso de fusión ocurre continuamente debido al calor producido por la enorme presión de la gravitación, y también debido al calor generado por las reacciones mismas. En una bomba de hidrógeno, el calor necesario para comenzar la reacción es suministrado por una bomba de fisión, pero la reacción se quema a sí misma rápidamente. Es imposible conseguir bastante gravitación para comenzar y mantener la fusión indefinidamente y de una manera controlada en una simple  muestra terrestre de hidrógeno, de deuterio, o de tritio. Para hacer el trabajo de la fusión con el fin de generar energía útil, el combustible debe ser confinado de alguna manera.

COMBUSTIBLE DEL PLASMA

Cuando una muestra de gas se calienta a una temperatura extremadamente alta, los electrones se alejan de los núcleos. Los átomos por lo tanto se convierten en iones. En vez de  “moverse en una órbita” alrededor de núcleo cargado positivamente de un átomo específico, un electrón está “libre” de moverse de un átomo al otro, o aún de desplazarse a través del espacio por sí mismo. Cuando esta ionización sucede, el gas, que es normalmente un conductor pobre de  corriente eléctrica, se convierte en un buen conductor. Una sustancia en este estado se conoce como plasma. Debido a que un plasma se diferencia de un gas ordinario, el estado del plasma se conoce como la cuarta fase de la materia (las otras tres son sólido, líquido, y gas). En los prototipos de los reactores de fusión que la mayoría de los científicos apoyan, el deuterio y el tritio existen en estado de plasma, calentados a temperaturas comparables a las existentes en los núcleos de las estrellas.

El comportamiento de un plasma puede afectarse dramáticamente por campos eléctricos o magnéticos externos. Un campo eléctrico o magnético puede hacer que un plasma se contraiga, se distorsione,  se agrupe hacia arriba, o se disperse. Si un plasma es rodeado por un campo eléctrico o magnético externo que tenga ciertas características, el plasma se puede mantener dentro de un espacio pequeño, definido, incluso si llega a ser bastante caliente para sostener reacciones de fusión del hidrógeno. Los campos externos actúan sobre el plasma de la misma forma que la gravitación dentro del sol mantiene los gases calientes del núcleo confinados. El uso de campos magnéticos externos para comprimir y sostener un plasma caliente de deuterio-titrio en un lugar durante una reacción de fusión se conoce como confinamiento magnético.

EL TOKAMAK

El método más prometedor de confinamiento magnético hace uso de un recinto evacuado toroidal (en forma de anillo) llamado tokamak. Este término es un acrónimo derivado de una frase descriptiva rusa que se traduce como “compartimiento toroidal y bobina magnética.” El plasma está contenido dentro del tokamak. Dos juegos de bobinas, llamados las bobinas toroidales de campo y las bobinas poloidales de campo, rodean el recinto toroidal (véase la figura 3 ). Las bobinas llevan  corrientes eléctricas que producen fuertes campos magnéticos.

Una corriente eléctrica de hasta cinco millones de amperios (5.000.000 A), suministrada por un gran transformador, se desplaza a través del plasma alrededor del toroide en un lazo circular, sin fin. Esta corriente de plasma crea un campo magnético propio. Los campos magnéticos de las corrientes en las bobinas y el plasma obran recíprocamente, confinando el plasma, alineándolo dentro del compartimiento del tokamak, y forzándolo hacia el centro de la sección transversal de la  cámara, manteniéndolo lejos de las paredes. ¡Esto es importante, porque el plasma se debe calentar a más de 100 millones de grados centígrados (100.000.000ºC) para que ocurra la fusión!. Si el plasma sobrecalentado fuera a entrar en contacto con la pared del tokamak en cualquier punto, el compartimiento se rompería, el aire se filtraría hacia adentro, el plasma se enfriaría debajo de la temperatura crítica, y la reacción de fusión cesaría. El producto del helio del proceso de fusión es quitado del compartimiento por derivadores.

NorthernTool.com

 

Figure 3. Functional diagram of a tokamak, showing plasma confinement coils and two methods of heating the plasma - Diagrama funcional de un tokamak, mostrando las bobinas de confinameinto de plasma y dos métodos de calentamiento del plasma.

Figure 4: Simplified functional diagram of a hydrogen fusion power-generating system, showing one reactor and one turbine - Diagrama funcional simplificado de un sistema de planta de generación de energía por fusión de hidrógeno, mostrando un reactor y una turbina.

« Previous 2 3 4 5 6 Next »
Collisional Transport in Magnetized Plasmas

Collisional Transport in Magnetized Plasmas

$67.95

Here is a text on theoretical plasma physics, the science of extremely hot gases which make up most of the universe and are used extensively in fusion energy research... [Read more]

Store: Indigo Books & Music (CA)

Basic Data Plasma Physics

Basic Data Plasma Physics

$124.95

Market: Scientists, engineers, and graduate students involved in the phenomenon of plasma physics... [Read more]

Store: Indigo Books & Music (CA)

Plasma Physics

Plasma Physics

$72.95

Plasma Physics [Read more]

Store: Indigo Books & Music (CA)

The Physics of Plasmas

The Physics of Plasmas

$102.95

The Physics of Plasmas provides a comprehensive introduction to the subject, illustrating the basic theory with examples drawn from fusion, space and astrophysical plasmas... [Read more]

Store: Indigo Books & Music (CA)

Plasma Cathode Electron Sources

Plasma Cathode Electron Sources

$203.99

This book fills the gap for a textbook describing this kind of electron beam source in a systematic and thorough manner: from physical processes of electron emission to examples of real plasma ... [Read more]

Store: Indigo Books & Music (CA)

Reviews of Plasma Physics

Reviews of Plasma Physics

$259.50

''''The review articles in this series are invariably of a high standard, and those contained in the most recent volumes to appear...are no exception... [Read more]

Store: Indigo Books & Music (CA)

Microwave/RF Applicators and Probes for Material Heating, Sensing, and Plasma Generation

Microwave/RF Applicators and Probes for Material Heating, Sensing, and Plasma Generation

$150.00

Interactions of electromagnetic fields with materials at high frequencies have given rise to a vast array of practical applications in industry, science, medicine, and consumer markets. Applicators or probes, which are the front end of these systems, provide the field that interacts with the material. This book takes an integrated approach to the area of high frequency applicators and probes for material interactions, providing a toolkit for those who design these devices. Particular attention is given to real-world applications and the latest developments in the area.Mathematical methods are provided as design tools, and are often simplified via curve-fitting techniques that are particularly usable by handheld calculators. Useful equations and numerically solved examples, using situations encountered in practice, are supplied. Above all, this volume is a comprehensive and useful reference where the reader can find design rules and principles of high frequency applicators and probes for material processing and sensing applications. Electronic and electrical R&D engineers, physicists, university professors and students will all find this book a valuable reference.Mehrdad Mehdizadeh is with the DuPont Company, Engineering Research & Technology Division in Wilmington, Delaware. His areas of expertise include high frequency hardware and electromagnetic methods of processing, sensing, and characterization of materials. His work and innovation in industrial, scientific, and medical applications of radio frequency and microwaves has resulted in 19 US patents and a number of publications. He earned his Ph.D. and M.S. from Marquette University (1983, 1980), and a B.S. from Sharif University of Technology (1977), all in electrical engineering. Dr. Mehdizadeh is a Senior Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE ), Sigma Xi (Scientific Research Society), the International Microwave Power Institute (IMPI ), and a voting member of IEEE Stand... [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Laser-Plasma Interactions

Laser-Plasma Interactions

$85.00

Presents diagnostic methods, experimental techniques, and simulation tools used to study and model laser-plasma interactions. This book discusses the basic theory of the interaction of intense electromagnetic radiation fields with matter. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Physics And Applications Of Complex Plasmas

Physics And Applications Of Complex Plasmas

$127.00

At the frontiers of physics and chemistry lies the new and rapidly emerging area of complex plasma systems. The study of complex plasma systems that contain colloid nano/microscopic particles is now actively pursued in a diverse range of scientific fields from plasma and gas discharge physics, to astrophysics, materials science and engineering. This book highlights, in a systematic, insightful, and perceptive way, the fundamental physics and industrial applications of complex plasmas, with emphasis on the conditions relevant to laboratory gas discharges and industrial plasma reactors. It provides a specialized and comprehensive description of the most recent theoretical, experimental, and modeling efforts to understand the unique properties of complex plasma systems involving the stability, dynamics, and self-organization of colloid particles and their associations. Special attention is focused on the physical understanding of up-to-date developments in major technological applications of micron and nano-sized particles. Each chapter is presented in a concise and comprehensive manner, with a categorized overview of the underlying physics followed by an in-depth description. The book will appeal to scientists and researchers as well as undergraduate and graduate students wishing to explore the flourishing interdisciplinary field of complex plasma systems. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Low Pressure Plasmas and Microstructuring Technology

Low Pressure Plasmas and Microstructuring Technology

$136.50

A monograph that presents a perspective of gas discharge physics and its applications to various industries. It presents an overview of the different types to generate plasmas by DC discharges, capacitive and inductive radiofrequency coupling, helicon waves including electron cyclotron resonance, and ion beams. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Reviews of Plasma Physics

Reviews of Plasma Physics

$108.00

"Reviews of Plasma Physics Volume 24, " edited by V.D. Shafranov, presents two reviews from the cutting-edge of Russian plasma physics research. The first review by V.A. Rozhansky devoted to the mechanisms of transverse conductivity and generation of self-consistent electric fields in strongly ionized magnetized plasma. The second review by O.G. Bakunin considers numerous aspects of turbulent transport in plasma and fluids. This review is focused on scaling arguments for describing anomalous diffusion in the presence of complex structures. These topics are especially important for fusion plasma research, plasma astrophysics, discharge physics, and turbulence. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Plasma Astrophysics, Part I

Plasma Astrophysics, Part I

$126.00

Presents classic fundamentals and perspectives of modern plasma astrophysics. This illustrated monograph covers the basic principles and practical tools required for understanding and work in plasma astrophysics. It represents the physics of magnetic reconnection and flares of electromagnetic origin in space plasmas in the solar system. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Modern Plasma Physics, 1

Modern Plasma Physics, 1

$104.00

Developing the physical kinetics of plasma turbulence through a focus on quasi-particle models and dynamics for researchers and graduate students. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Power Exhaust in Fusion Plasmas

Power Exhaust in Fusion Plasmas

$100.00

A complete and up-to-date summary of power exhaust in fusion plasmas, for academic researchers and graduate students in plasma physics. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry and its Applications

Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry and its Applications

$200.00

The first edition of Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry and its Applications was written as a handbook for users who wanted a better understanding of the theory augmented by a practical insight of how best to approach a range of applications, and to provide a useful starting point for users trying an approach or technique new to them. These objectives have been retained in the second edition but a slight shift in emphasis gives the volume an overall perspective that is more forward looking. Structured into 11 chapters, the current edition is a thorough revision of the original, covering the principles of inductively coupled plasmas, instrumentation, methodology and applications within environmental analysis, earth science, food science and clinical medicine. Each chapter, written by internationally recognised leaders in their specific subject areas, provides enough detail to be useful to both the new and experienced users. Full account is taken of recent developments, such as high resolution instruments, novel detection systems and electrospray techniques. Written for all analytical scientists but particularly those involved in atomic spectroscopy and in environmental, geochemical, clinical or food analysis, this timely and informative book will be an essential reference in their use of inductively coupled plasmas to achieve their own scientific goals. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Reaction-Diffusion Problems in the Physics of Hot Plasmas

Reaction-Diffusion Problems in the Physics of Hot Plasmas

$159.95

The physics of hot plasmas is of great importance for describing many phenomena in the Universe and is fundamental for the prospect of future fusion energy production on Earth. Non-trivial results of nonlinear electromagnetic effects in plasmas include the self-organization an self-formation in the plasma of structures compact in time and space. These are the consequences of competing processes of nonlinear interactions and can be best described using reaction-diffusion equations. This book is focussed on paradigmatic problems of a reaction-diffusion type met in many branches of science and concerning in particular the nonlinear interaction of electromagnetic fields with plasmas. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Plasma Chemistry

Plasma Chemistry

$136.00

The book describes the major applications of plasma chemistry and is aimed at engineers. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Plasma Polarization Spectroscopy

Plasma Polarization Spectroscopy

$135.00

Plasma Polarization Spectroscopy (PPS) is now becoming a standard diagnostic technique for working with laboratory plasmas. This new area needs a comprehensive framework, both experimental and theoretical. This book reviews the historical development of PPS, develops a general theoretical formulation to deal with this phenomenon, along with an overview of relevant cross sections, and reports on laboratory experiments so far performed. It also includes various facets that are interesting from this standpoint, e.g. X-ray lasers and effects of microwave irradiation. It also offers a timely discussion of instrumentation that is quite important in a practical PPS experiment. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Plasma Electronics

Plasma Electronics

$139.95

Without plasma processing techniques, recent advances in microelectronics fabrication would not have been possible. But beyond simply enabling new capabilities, plasma-based techniques hold the potential to enhance and improve many processes and applications. They are viable over a wide range of size and time scales, and can be used for deposition, etching, and even process monitoring and diagnosis. Plasma Electronics: Applications in Microelectronic Device Fabrication explains the fundamental physics and numerical methods necessary to bring these technologies from the laboratory to the factory. Beginning with an overview of the basic characteristics and applications of low-temperature plasma, preeminent experts Makabe and Petrovic explore the physics underlying the complex behavior of non-equilibrium (or low temperature) plasma. They discuss charged particle transport in general and in detail as well as macroscopic plasma characteristics and elementary processes in gas phase and on surfaces. After laying this groundwork, the book examines state-of-the-art computational methods for modeling plasma and reviews various important applications including inductively and capacitively coupled plasma, magnetically enhanced plasma, and various processing techniques, while numerous problems and worked examples reinforce the concepts. Uniquely combining physics, numerical methods, and practical applications, Plasma Electronics: Applications in Microelectronic Device Fabrication equips you with the knowledge necessary to scale up lab bench breakthroughs into industrial innovations. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Plasma Astrophysics, Part 2

Plasma Astrophysics, Part 2

$119.50

Presents classic fundamentals and perspectives of modern plasma astrophysics. This illustrated monograph covers the basic principles and practical tools required for understanding and work in plasma astrophysics. It represents the physics of magnetic reconnection and flares of electromagnetic origin in space plasmas in the solar system. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Transport Phenomena in Plasma

Transport Phenomena in Plasma

$190.00

Advances in Heat Transfer fills the information gap between regularly scheduled journals and university level textbooks by providing in-depth review articles over a broader scope than in journals or texts. The articles, which serve as a broad review for experts in the field, will also be of great interest to non-specialists who need to keep up-to-date with the results of the latest research. It is essential reading for all mechanical, chemical and industrial engineers working in the field of heat transfer, graduate schools or industry. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Laser-Aided Diagnostics of Plasmas and Gases

Laser-Aided Diagnostics of Plasmas and Gases

$149.95

Here, the authors have taken a unique approach in treating laser aided diagnostics as a unified subject instead of the usual and disjointed approach of describing each application as a separate system. The first part introduces laser-aided study of gases, while the second describes applications. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Advances in Plasma-Grown Hydrogenated Films

Advances in Plasma-Grown Hydrogenated Films

$203.00

Physics of Thin Films is one of the longest running continuing series in thin film science, consisting of 25 volumes since 1963. The series contains quality studies of the properties of various thin films materials and systems. In order to be able to reflect the development of today's science and to cover all modern aspects of thin films, the series, starting with Volume 20, has moved beyond the basic physics of thin films. It now addresses the most important aspects of both inorganic and organic thin films, in both their theoretical and their technological aspects. Starting with Volume 30, the title of the series, Thin Films, is being changed to Thin Films and Nanostructures . We feel that this new title. reflects more accurately the rapidly growing inclusion of research and development efforts on nanostructures, especially in relation to novel solid-state device formats. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

Plasma Deposition of Amorphous Silicon-Based Materials

Plasma Deposition of Amorphous Silicon-Based Materials

$146.95

Semiconductors made from amorphous silicon have recently become important for their commercial applications in optical and electronic devices including FAX machines, solar cells, and liquid crystal displays. Plasma Deposition of Amorphous Silicon-Based Materials is a timely, comprehensive reference book written by leading authorities in the field. This volume links the fundamental growth kinetics involving complex plasma chemistry with the resulting semiconductor film properties and the subsequent effect on the performance of the electronic devices produced. [Read more]

Store: eBooks.com

« Previous 2 3 4 5 6 Next »

HEATING THE PLASMA

Several processes can be implemented in order to obtain the high plasma temperature necessary to sustain the fusion reaction:

 •Ohmic heating Arises from the fact that the current, as it circulates in the plasma, encounters a finite resistance. This means that a certain amount of power is dissipated in the plasma, just as a wire gets hot when it carries high current.

 •Self heating Takes place because the fusion reaction produces heat itself, and some of this heat is absorbed by the plasma.

 •Neutral-beam injection Involves firing high-energy beams of neutral H-2 and H-3 atoms into the plasma. These heat the plasma when they collide

GETTING THE ELECTRICITY

The figure 4 is a simplified functional diagram of a hydrogen fusion power plant.

Except for the nature of the reaction, this type of power plant resembles a fission based generating system. The plasma chamber, where the fusion reaction takes place, is surrounded by a moderator, which consists of lithium blankets that absorb neutron radiation from the fusion reaction. The high-speed neutrons cause the moderator to heat up, and also “breed” additional tritium fuel from the lithium.

Heat from the moderator is transferred to a water boiler, also called a heat exchanger, by means of coolant. The coolant is pumped from the shell of the boiler back to the plasma chamber. The water in the boiler is converted to steam, which drives a turbine. After passing through the turbine, the steam is condensed and sent back to the boiler by a feed pump. The turbine rotates the shaft of an electric generator that is connected into the utility grid through a step-up transformer.

ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN FUSION FOR POWER

• The only material byproducts of hydrogen fusion are He-4, a harmless gas, and tritium that can serve as additional fuel.

• Deuterium fuel can be easily obtained from water. Lithium is abundant in the earth’s crust. Tritium can be bred in the reactor. These are the only material ingredients necessary to operate a D-T fusion reactor.

• A hydrogen fusion power plant will produce no greenhouse-gas emissions, CO gas, or particulate pollutants as do fossil-fuel power plants.

• A working fusion reactor will be safer than a fission reactor. Meltdown will not occur if the reactor is damaged, because terrestrial fusion reactions cannot be sustained without the continuous infusion of fuel and energy.

• Terrestrial fusion is not a chain reaction. It can’t get out of control and cause a fusion reactor to blow up. The reason a hydrogen bomb explodes is because abundant fuel is supplied and it is used up almost instantaneously, not because of a chain reaction. In a fusion reactor, the quantity of fuel will not be great enough to generate an explosion.

• The widespread deployment of fusion reactors, should they ever be perfected, will reduce or eliminate dependence on nonrenewable fuels for generating electricity.

LIMITATIONS OF HYDROGEN FUSION FOR POWER

• Although no radioactive waste is directly produced by D-T fusion, the emitted neutrons eventually make the reactor containment structure radioactive. This problem can be mitigated by using low-activation materials in the structure. Such materials become less radioactive from neutron bombardment than common containment materials such as steel.

Unfortunately, low-activation alloys tend to be expensive.

• Although no radioactive waste is directly produced by D-T fusion, some radioactive tritium will be released by the reactor during normal operation.

It has a half-life (that is, it loses half of its radioactivity) in 12 years.

• The widespread deployment of working fusion reactors is not expected to take place until at least the middle of the 21st century. Major technical and logistic hurdles remain. In addition, the public will have to be convinced that hydrogen fusion reactors are safe.

 

CALENTAMIENTO DEL PLASMA

Varios procesos se pueden implementar para obtener la alta temperatura del plasma necesaria para sostener la reacción de fusión:

• La calefacción óhmica surge del hecho de que la corriente, cuando  circula por el plasma, encuentra una resistencia finita. Esto significa que una cantidad determinada de energía será disipada en el plasma, de igual manera que un alambre se calienta cuando lleva gran intensidad de corriente.

• La auto calefacción  ocurre porque la reacción de fusión produce calor por sí misma, y algo de este calor es absorbido por el plasma.

• La inyección de haz neutral implica disparar haces de gran energía de  átomos neutrales H-2 y H-3 en el plasma. Éstos calientan el plasma cuando chocan

OBTENIENDO LA ELECTRICIDAD

La figura 4 es un diagrama funcional simplificado de una planta de energía de fusión de hidrógeno. A excepción de la naturaleza de la reacción, este tipo de central eléctrica se asemeja a un sistema de generación basado en fisión. La cámara de plasma, donde ocurre la reacción de fusión, es rodeada por un moderador, que consiste en planchas de litio que absorben la radiación de los neutrones de la reacción de fusión. Los neutrones de alta velocidad hacen que el moderador se caliente, y también “críe” combustible adicional de tritio a partir del litio.

El calor del moderador se transfiere a una caldera de agua, también llamada intercambiador de calor, por medio del líquido refrigerador. El líquido refrigerador se bombea del cuerpo de la caldera de nuevo al compartimiento del plasma. El agua en la caldera se convierte en vapor, que impulsa una turbina. Después de pasar a través de la turbina, el vapor es condensado y devuelto a la caldera por una bomba de alimentación. La turbina rota el eje de un generador eléctrico que está conectado en la red eléctrica a través de un transformador elevador de tensión.

VENTAJAS DE LA FUSIÓN DEL HIDRÓGENO PARA LA ENERGÍA

• Los únicos subproductos materiales de la fusión del hidrógeno son He-4, un gas inofensivo, y el tritio que puede servir como combustible adicional.

• El deuterio combustible se puede obtener fácilmente del agua. El litio es abundante en la corteza de tierra. El tritio se puede producir en el reactor. Éstos son los únicos ingredientes materiales necesarios para hacer funcionar un reactor de fusión D-T.

• Una planta de energía de fusión de hidrógeno no producirá ninguna emisión de gases de efecto invernadero, CO gaseoso, o agentes contaminadores de partículas como lo hacen las centrales eléctricas de combustible fósil.

• Un reactor de fusión en funcionamiento será más seguro que un reactor de fisión. La fusión del reactor no ocurrirá si se daña el mismo, porque las reacciones de fusión terrestres no se pueden sostener sin la incorporación continua de combustible y de energía.

• La fusión terrestre no es una reacción en cadena. No puede salir de control y hacer que un reactor de fusión explote. La razón por la que una bomba de hidrógeno estalla es porque se suministra combustible abundante y se utiliza todo casi instantáneamente, no debido a una reacción en cadena. En un reactor de fusión, la cantidad de combustible no será bastante grande para generar una explosión.

• El despliegue extenso de los reactores de fusión, en caso de que se perfeccionen, reducirá o eliminará la dependencia de los combustibles no renovables para generar electricidad.

LIMITACIONES DE LA FUSIÓN DEL HIDRÓGENO PARA LA ENERGÍA

• Aunque no se produzcan desechos radioactivos directamente por la fusión D-T, los neutrones emitidos eventualmente convierten la estructura de contención del reactor radiactiva. Este problema puede ser atenuado usando materiales de baja activación en la estructura. Tales materiales llegan a ser menos radiactivos a partir del bombardeo de neutrones que los materiales comunes de contención tales como el acero.

Desafortunadamente, las aleaciones de baja activación tienden a ser costosas.

• Aunque no se produzca ningún desecho radioactivo directamente por la fusión D-T, un poco de tritio radiactivo será liberado por el reactor durante la operación normal. Tiene una vida media (es decir, pierde la mitad de su radiactividad) en 12 años.

• No se espera que un despliegue extenso de reactores de fusión en funcionamiento ocurra por lo menos hasta mediados del siglo XXI. Siguen habiendo obstáculos técnicos y logísticos importantes. Además, el público tendrá que ser convencido de que los reactores de fusión de hidrógeno son seguros.