Geothermal Power
Translated from the Greek, geothermal means earth heat. The earth’s core is incredibly hot, mainly as a result of the decay of radioactive materials with half lives measured in millions or billions (thousand-millions) of years. In fact, if you go deep enough, the rocks in the earth are found in a liquid state called magma.
Periodically this magma reaches the surface in various places. Then we observe volcanic eruptions. Geothermal power projects convert the energy contained in hot rock into electricity by using water to absorb heat from the rock and transport it to the earth's surface, where it is converted to electrical energy through turbine-generators. Water from high-temperature 240 C reservoirs is partially flashed to steam and heat is converted to mechanical energy by passing steam through low-pressure steam turbines. Go deep, get heat
On the average, the temperature of the earth increases by about 28ºC for every kilometer, or 80ºF for every mile, of depth below the surface for the first several kilometers down. In some locations, the temperature rises faster than this; in some locations it rises more slowly.
Wherever you are, if you can sink a well deep enough, you can reach rocks that will boil water and get steam. That’s the key to geothermal power generation.
Not surprisingly, the best locations for geothermal power plants are places where the temperature rises rapidly with increasing depth. Volcanic regions are excellent.
Geologically stable places, or nonvolcanic locations at high elevation, are usually poor sites, but there are exceptions. Certain parts of Wyoming and South Dakota in the United States, for example, are at high elevation, do not have active volcanoes nearby, and yet offer promise for geothermal power generation. A small fraction of geothermal generation worldwide is generated using a heat exchanger and secondary working fluid to drive the turbine. Exploitable geothermal reservoirs exist in high-temperature, highly permeable, fluid-filled rock within the earth's upper crust, typically in areas associated with young volcanic rocks. Driven by heat loss from underlying magma, hot fluids rise along pre-existing zones of high permeability.
Flash-steam and dry-steam systems .
The buoyant up-flowing fluids enhance the permeability of the rocks through which they are flowing by chemical leaching and by explosive boiling. If the system becomes large enough and has high enough permeability, it has the potential to be a commercial grade geothermal reservoir with temperatures typically in the range 240 C–320 C . Current drilling technology can economically exploit geothermal reservoirs in the depth range 500–3000 m.
It is estimated that more than 97% of current geothermal production is from magmatically driven reservoirs. More than 90% of exploited fields were “liquid-dominated” under pre-exploitation conditions with reservoir pressures increasing with depth in response to a liquid-phase density.
Figure 1 is a functional diagram of a flash -steam geothermal power plant. Water is forced down into an injection well by a groundwater pump. The well must be sunk deep enough to reach subterranean rocks at a temperature higher than the boiling point of water. The water filters through the rocks where it becomes heated and rises back up through the nearby production well. The hot water from the production well enters a flash tank where some of the water boils rapidly into vapor. Water that remains liquid in the flash tank is returned to the groundwater pump to be forced down into the earth again.
The vapor from the flash tank drives a steam turbine, which turns the shaft of an electric generator. After passing through the turbine, the steam is cooled in a condenser. This returns the water vapor to the liquid state, and this liquid is forced by the groundwater pump back down into the earth along with the diverted water from the flash tank. Some of the condensed vapor can be used for drinking and irrigation because it is, in effect, distilled.
“Vapor-dominated” systems, such as The Geysers in California, have vertical pressure gradients controlled by the density of the steam.
The flash tank must be periodically flushed and cleaned to get rid of mineral buildup. If the water from the production well has high mineral content, the flushing must be done more often than if the water has low mineral content. In some locations, the subterranean rocks are so hot that the water from a geothermal power plant vaporizes on its way up through the production well. In this case, the steam can be used to directly drive the turbine. The flash tank is not necessary in this type of system, which is known as a dry-steam geothermal power plant.

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Energía geotérmica
Traducido del Griego, geotérmico significa calor de la tierra. El núcleo de la tierra es increíblemente caliente, principalmente como resultado de la desintegración de materiales radioactivos con vida media medida en millones o billones (mil-millones) de años. De hecho, si usted va lo bastante profundo, las rocas en la tierra se encuentran en un estado líquido llamado magma.
Este magma alcanza periódicamente la superficie en varios lugares. Entonces observamos erupciones volcánicas. Los proyectos de energía geotérmica convierten la energía contenida en la roca caliente en electricidad usando el agua para absorber calor de la roca y para transportarlo a la superficie de tierra, donde se convierte en energía eléctrica a través de los turbogeneradores. El agua de depósitos de alta temperatura ( >240 °C) se transforma parcialmente en forma instantánea en vapor y el calor es convertido en energía mecánica pasando el vapor a través de las turbinas de vapor de baja presión. Vaya a lo profundo y consiga calor
En promedio, la temperatura de la tierra aumenta en alrededor 28ºC por cada kilómetro, o 80ºF por cada milla, de profundidad debajo de la superficie para los primeros kilómetros hacia abajo. En algunas localizaciones, la temperatura se incrementa más rápidamente que esto; en otras localizaciones se eleva más lentamente.
Dondequiera que usted se encuentre, si usted puede hundirse lo bastante profundo, usted podrá alcanzar rocas que hervirán el agua y darán vapor. Ésa es la clave de la producción de energía geotérmica.
Naturalmente, las mejores localizaciones para las centrales eléctricas geotérmicas son lugares donde la temperatura se incrementa rápidamente con el aumento de profundidad. Las regiones volcánicas son excelentes.
Los lugares geológicamente estables, o las localizaciones no volcánicas a gran altitud, son generalmente sitios pobres, pero hay excepciones. Ciertas partes de Wyoming y de Dakota del Sur en los Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, están a gran elevación, no tienen volcanes activos cerca, y aún así prometen oferta para la producción de energía geotérmica. Una pequeña fracción de la generación geotérmica mundial se produce usando un intercambiador de calor y un fluido de trabajo secundario para impulsar la turbina. Los depósitos geotérmicos explotables existen en rocas de alta temperatura, altamente permeable, llena de fluido dentro de la corteza superior de la tierra, típicamente en áreas asociadas con rocas volcánicas jóvenes. Impulsados por el desprendimiento de calor del magma subyacente, los líquidos calientes se elevan a lo largo de zonas preexistentes de la alta permeabilidad. Sistemas de vapor de vaporización instantánea y vapor seco
Los líquidos que se desplazan en forma ascendente incrementan la permeabilidad de las rocas a través de las cuales están fluyendo por filtración química y por la ebullición explosiva. Si el sistema llega a ser lo bastante grande y tiene suficiente permeabilidad, tiene el potencial para transformarse en un depósito geotérmico de grado comercial con temperaturas que se encuentran típicamente en valores de 240°C -320°C. La tecnología actual de perforación puede explotar económicamente depósitos geotérmicos en valores de profundidad de 500-3000 m.
Se estima que más del 97% de la producción geotérmica actual es de depósitos magmáticos. Más del 90% de campos explotados fueron “dominados por líquidos” bajo condiciones de pre-explotación con presiones de depósito que se incrementan con la profundidad en respuesta a una densidad de fase líquida.
La figura 1 es un diagrama funcional de una central eléctrica de vapor de vaporización instantánea geotérmica. El agua es forzada hacia abajo en una perforación mediante una bomba de agua subterránea. El pozo debe ser lo suficientemente profundo como para alcanzar rocas subterráneas a una temperatura mayor que el punto de ebullición del agua. El agua se filtra a través de las rocas donde llega a ser calentada y se eleva nuevamente a través del pozo de producción cercano. El agua caliente del pozo de producción entra en un tanque de vaporización instantánea donde parte del agua hierve rápidamente para transformarse en vapor. El agua que permanece en estado líquido en el tanque de vaporización instantánea es retornada a la bomba de agua subterránea que la impulsará nuevamente hacia abajo dentro de la tierra.
El vapor del tanque de vaporización impulsa una turbina de vapor, que hace girar al eje de un generador eléctrico. Después de pasar a través de la turbina, el vapor se enfría en un condensador. Esto vuelve el vapor de agua al estado líquido, y este líquido es forzado por la bomba del agua subterránea nuevamente hacia abajo en la tierra junto con el agua extraída del tanque de vaporización. Algo del condensado de vapor se puede utilizar para beber y para irrigación porque, en efecto, está destilado. Los sistemas “dominados por vapor”, tales como los géiseres en California, tiene gradientes de presión verticales controlados por la densidad del vapor.
El tanque de vaporización se debe limpiar periódicamente con un chorro de agua y lavar para deshacerse de la acumulación mineral. Si el agua del pozo de producción tiene alto contenido mineral, la limpieza con chorro de agua se debe hacer más a menudo que si el agua tuviera bajo contenido mineral. En algunas localizaciones, las rocas subterráneas son tan calientes que el agua de una central eléctrica geotérmica se vaporiza en su camino hacia arriba a través del pozo de producción. En este caso, el vapor se puede utilizar para impulsar directamente la turbina. El tanque de vaporización instantánea no es necesario en este tipo de sistema, que se conoce como central eléctrica geotérmica de vapor seco.
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Fig. 1 - Simplified functional diagram of a flash-steam geothermal power plant. - Diagrama funcional simplificado de una planta geotérmica de vaporización instantánea.

Fumarole - Fumarola; Deep exploration wells - Pozos de exploración profunda ; Shallow exploration wells - Pozos de exploración de poca profundidad ; Hot springs - Fuentes termales ; Fault - Falla
Fig. 2 - Schematic cross section through the earth’s crust showing the key elements of a typical
commercial volcanic-hosted geothermal system. The exploration process typically includes
the sampling and analysis of waters and gases from hot springs and fumaroles, geophysical
measurement of subsurface rock resistivities using the time-domain electromagnetic (<1 km depth of
investigation) and magnetotellurics (>5 km depth of investigation) techniques, and both shallow
and deep drilling. The goal of shallow drilling is to identify and map the conductive heat flow
anomaly overlying the geothermal system. The goal of deep drilling is to penetrate the geothermal
reservoir, if it exists, and produced fluids. |
Fig. 2 - Sección representativa esquemática de corte de la corteza de la Tierra que muestra los elementos claves de un típico sistema geotérmico de almacenamiento volcánico comercial. El proceso de exploración incluye típicamente el muestreo y análisis de aguas y de gases de fuentes termales y de las fumarolas, medida geofísica de las resistencias subsuperficies de la roca usando técnicas electromagnéticas del dominio del tiempo (>5 kilómetros de profundidad de investigación), y tanto perforaciones de poca profundidad como de alta. El objetivo de la perforación de baja profundidad es identificar y ubicar la anomalía conductora del flujo de calor que cubre el sistema geotérmico. El objetivo de la perforación profunda es penetrar el depósito geotérmico, si existe, y los líquidos producidos. |
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Geothermal reservoirs may also develop outside regions of recent volcanic activity, where deeply penetrating faults allow groundwater to circulate to depths of several kilometers and become heated by the geothermal gradient. Vertical temperature gradients typically range from 10 C/km to 80 C/km so, for example, in a gradient of 50 C/km groundwater circulating to depths of 4–5 km may increase in temperature above 200 C before flowing upwards under buoyancy forces. This up-flowing hot water may accumulate in a shallow aquifer, and create an economic geothermal resource.
The rate of heat loss at the earth's surface is estimated at 4x1013 W, 30% of which is from continental areas. Heat flows are typically in the range 20–120 mW/m , averaging 87 mW/m , but in regions of recent volcanic activity where molten magmas have ascended from the earth's mantle and reside in the crust beneath volcanic chains, heat flow can be an order of magnitude higher. Hot springs and fumaroles are common surface manifestations of this excess heat flow from cooling magma and almost all the exploited geothermal systems were drilled because of the occurrence of surface thermal features. An analogy may be drawn with the early oil industry, where surface oil seeps attracted wildcatters. It is likely that many magmatically driven systems have no surface expression, and remain to be discovered.
Binary-cycle systems
In a binary-cycle geothermal power plant, water is pumped into the earth and comes back up hot, just as it does in the flash-steam system. However, instead of going into a flash tank, the hot water enters a heat exchanger where most of its energy is transferred to another fluid called a binary liquid. This fluid can be water, but more often it is a volatile liquid resembling refrigerant that boils easily into vapor at a lower temperature than water. The liquid-to-vapor conversion occurs in a special low-temperature boiler. The pressurized vapor drives a steam turbine. Then the vapor leaves the turbine, is cooled back into liquid by a condenser, and is recirculated to the boiler.
The binary liquid remains in a closed system, isolated from the water that goes into the subterranean rocks. There is less mineral buildup than is the case with the flash-steam system, because none of the water that has passed through the rocks is boiled off. In addition, there are no emissions into the atmosphere. Binary-cycle geothermal power plants can sometimes work well in sites where the subterranean rocks are not hot enough to operate a flash-steam or dry-steam system. Figure 2 is a simplified functional diagram of a binary-cycle geothermal power plant.
Advantages of geothermal power plants
• The supply of geothermal energy is vast, although not infinite. It can be considered renewable, as long as excessive water is not pumped into the earth in one location in too short a time.
• A geothermal power plant does not need to have fuel transported or piped in from an outside source.
• The production of electricity from geothermal sources does not generate pollutants or toxic byproducts. (However, see the third limitation below.)
• No external source of fuel is needed, except that required to initially start the pump(s). Once the power plant is operating, the electricity for the pumps can be derived from the plant itself.
• After a geothermal power plant has been built, there are no operating costs, except for routine maintenance and repair.
• A geothermal power plant has a low profile and does not take up a large amount of surface real estate.
• A flash-steam geothermal power plant, if placed on the shoreline of an ocean, can be used to desalinate seawater for drinking and irrigation. This is a natural result of the distillation that occurs when the water is boiled to vapor.
Limitations of geothermal power plants
• Finding a good site for a geothermal power plant, and getting approval from local residents or governments, can be a big challenge.
• In some cases an established geothermal power plant will “run cold.” This can occur as a result of natural changes in the subterranean environment. It can also occur if the site was poorly chosen and too much water is pumped down into the rocks.
• Flammable or toxic gases and minerals may be released from subterranean rocks and come up from the wells. These can be difficult to get rid of. In some cases they can be siphoned off and refined into fuel (crude oil and natural gas, for example) |
Los depósitos geotérmicos pueden también desarrollarse fuera de regiones de actividad volcánica reciente, donde fallas de penetración profunda permiten que el agua subterránea circule hasta profundidades de varios kilómetros y que lleguen a ser calentadas por el gradiente geotérmico. Los gradientes de temperatura verticales se extienden típicamente desde 10 C/km a 80 C/km así pues, por ejemplo, de un gradiente de agua subterránea de 50 C/km circulando a profundidades de 4-5 kilómetros se puede aumentar la temperatura sobre 200 °C antes de fluir hacia arriba bajo fuerzas de ascenso. Esta agua caliente que se desplaza en forma ascendente puede acumularse en un acuífero bajo, y crear un recurso geotérmico económico.
El índice de pérdida de calor en la superficie de tierra se estima en 4x1013 W, 30% del cual es de regiones continentales. Los caudales caloríficos están típicamente en el rango de 20-120 mW/m, haciendo un promedio de 87 mW/m, pero en regiones de actividad volcánica reciente donde el magma fundido ha ascendido desde el manto terrestre y reside en la corteza debajo de cadenas volcánicas, el flujo del calor puede ser de un orden de magnitud superior. Los centros de aguas termales y las fumarolas son manifestaciones superficiales comunes de este exceso de flujo de calor del magma enfriándose y casi todos los sistemas geotérmicos explotados fueron perforados debido a la ocurrencia de las características termales superficiales. Una analogía se puede establecer con los inicios de la industria de petróleo, donde filtraciones superficiales de petróleo atrajeron a los “gatos salvajes” (buscadores independientes de petróleo). Es probable muchos sistemas magmáticos no tengan ninguna expresión superficial, y ser permanezcan sin ser descubiertos.
Sistemas de ciclo binario
En una central eléctrica geotérmica del ciclo binario, el agua se bombea al interior de la tierra y retorna caliente, en forma similar a como se hace en el sistema de vapor instantáneo. Sin embargo, en vez de entrar en un tanque de vaporización, el agua caliente ingresa a un intercambiador de calor donde la mayor parte de su energía se transfiere a otro fluido llamado líquido binario. Este líquido puede ser agua, pero más a menudo es un líquido volátil que se asemeja a un refrigerante que hierve fácilmente en el vapor a una temperatura más baja que el agua. La conversión del líquido a vapor ocurre en una caldera especial a baja temperatura. El vapor a presión impulsa una turbina de vapor. Posteriormente el vapor deja de la turbina, es enfriado nuevamente a líquido por un condensador, y recirculado a la caldera.
El líquido binario permanece en un sistema cerrado, aislado del agua que ingresa en las rocas subterráneas. Hay menos acumulación mineral que el caso con el sistema del vapor de vaporización instantánea, porque nada del agua que ha pasado a través de las rocas se hierve. Además, no hay emisiones a la atmósfera. Las centrales eléctricas geotérmicas de ciclo binario pueden trabajar bien a veces en sitios donde las rocas subterráneas no son lo suficientemente calientes para hacer funcionar un sistema de vapor de vaporización instantánea o de vapor seco. El cuadro 2 es un diagrama funcional simplificado de una central eléctrica geotérmica de ciclo binario.
Ventajas de las centrales eléctricas geotérmicas
• La fuente de energía geotérmica es abundante, aunque no infinita. Puede ser considerada renovable, mientras que agua en exceso no se bombeada en la tierra en una localización en un tiempo demasiado corto.
• Una central eléctrica geotérmica no necesita tener combustible transportado o bombeado por tubos desde una fuente exterior.
• La producción de electricidad a partir de fuentes geotérmicas no genera agentes contaminantes o subproductos tóxicos. (Sin embargo, vea la tercera limitación abajo.)
• No es necesaria una fuente externa de combustible, salvo la requerida para encender inicialmente las bombas. Una vez que la central eléctrica está funcionando, la electricidad para las bombas se puede derivar de la planta misma.
• Después de que se haya construido una central eléctrica geotérmica, no hay costos operativos, a excepción del mantenimiento rutinario y de reparación.
• Una central eléctrica geotérmica tiene un perfil bajo y no ocupa una gran cantidad de superficie de terreno
• Una central eléctrica geotérmica de vapor de expansión instantánea, si está colocada en la línea de la playa de un océano, se puede utilizar para desalinizar el agua de mar para beber y para irrigación. Éste es un resultado natural de la destilación que ocurre cuando el agua se hierve para vaporizarse.
Limitaciones de las centrales eléctricas geotérmicas
• Encontrar un buen sitio para una central eléctrica geotérmica, y conseguir la aprobación de residentes locales o de gobiernos, pueden ser un gran reto.
• En algunos casos una central eléctrica geotérmica construida puede llegar a “funcionar en frío.” Esto puede ocurrir como resultado de cambios naturales en el ambiente subterráneo. Puede también ocurrir si el sitio fue mal elegido y demasiada agua se bombea a las rocas abajo
• Gases inflamables o tóxicos y minerales pueden ser desprendidos de rocas subterráneas y salir de los pozos. Puede ser difícil de deshacerse de los mismos. En algunos casos pueden ser reducidos gradualmente y ser refinados para transformarlos en combustible (petróleo crudo y gas natural, por ejemplo).
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