Converting solar energy to electricity via photovoltaic cells is one of the most exciting and practical scientific discoveries of the last several hundred years. The use of solar power is far less damaging to the environment than burning fossil fuels to generate power. In comparison to other renewable energy resources such as hydro power, wind, and geothermal, solar has unmatched portability and thus flexibility. The sun shines everywhere. These characteristics make solar power a key energy source as we move away from our fossil fuel dependency, and toward more sustainable and clean ways to meet our energy needs.
The sun is a powerful energy resource. Although very little of the billions of megawatts per second generated by the sun reaches our tiny Earth, there is more than enough to be unlimited in potential for terrestrial power production.
The sunlight that powers solar cells travels through space at 186,282 miles per hour to reach the earth 8.4 minutes after leaving the surface of the sun. About 1,368 W/M2 is released at the top of the earth’s atmosphere. Although the solar energy that reaches the Earth’s surface is reduced due to water vapor, ozone layer absorption and scattering by air molecules, there is still plenty of power for us to collect. Harvesting photons for use in homes, factories, offices, vehicles and personal electronics has become practical, and economical, and will continue to increase in its importance in the energy supply equation.
What is Photovoltaics?
Photovoltaics (abbreviated PV) is the most direct way to convert solar radiation into electricity and is based on the photovoltaic effect, which was first observed by Henri Becquerel in 1839. It is quite generally defined as the emergence of an electric voltage between two electrodes attached to a solid or liquid system upon shining light onto this system. Practically all photovoltaic devices incorporate a pn junction in a semiconductor across which the photovoltage is developed . These devices are also known as solar cells. Light absorption occurs in a semiconductor material. The semiconductor material has to be able to absorb a large part of the solar spectrum.
A photovoltaic (PV) cell is a specialized form of semiconductor diode that converts visible light, IR radiation, or UV radiation directly into electricity. When used to obtain electricity from sunlight, this type of device is known as a solar cell. One of the most common types of solar cell is made of specially treated silicon, and is known as a silicon PV cell.
Structure and operation
The basic structure of a silicon PV cell is shown in next figure. It is made out of two types of silicon, called P type and N type. The heart of the device is the surface at which these two types of materials come together, known as the P-N junction.
The top of the assembly is transparent so that light can fall directly on the junction.
The positive electrode is made of metal ribbing interconnected by tiny wires. The negative electrode is a metal base called the substrate, which is placed in contact with the N-type silicon.
When radiant energy strikes the P-N junction, a voltage or potential difference develops between the P-type and N-type materials. When a load is connected to the cell, the intensity of the current through the load increases in proportion to the brightness of the light striking the P-N junction of the cell—up to a certain critical point. As the light intensity increases past this critical point, the current levels off at a maximum called the saturation current. The ratio of the available output power to the light power striking a PV cell is called the efficiency, or the conversion efficiency, of the cell.
Fig. : Construction of a silicon photovoltaic cell.
Dependent on the absorption properties of the material, the light is absorbed in a region more or less close to the surface. When light quanta are absorbed, electron hole pairs are generated, and if their recombination is prevented they can reach the junction where they are separated by an electric field. Even for a weakly absorbing semiconductor like silicon, most carriers are generated near the surface.
Technology
The photovoltaic effect remained a laboratory curiosity from 1839 until 1959, when the first silicon solar cell was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1954 by Chapin et al. It already had an efficiency of 6%, which was rapidly increased to 10%. The main application for many years was in space vehicle power supplies.
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Convertir energía solar en electricidad vía las células fotovoltaicas (también llamada célula, fotocélula o celda fotovoltaica) es uno de los descubrimientos científicos más emocionantes y más prácticos de los últimos cien años. El uso de la energía solar es por lejos menos perjudicial al medioambiente que la quema de combustibles fósiles para generar energía. En comparación con otros recursos de energía renovables tales como la energía hidráulica, el viento, y geotérmico, la energía solar tiene portabilidad incomparable y así flexibilidad. El sol brilla por todas partes. Estas características hacen de la energía solar una fuente de energía dominante a medida que nos alejamos de nuestra dependencia del combustible fósil, y hacia maneras más sostenibles y más limpias de cubrir nuestras necesidades energéticas.
El sol es una fuente de recursos energéticos de gran alcance. Aunque muy poco de los mil millones de megavatios por segundo generado por el sol alcance nuestra Tierra minúscula, hay más que suficiente para ser ilimitados en potencial para la producción de energía terrestre.
La luz del sol que acciona las células solares viaja a través de espacio a 186.282 kilómetros por hora para alcanzar la tierra 8.4 minutos después de dejar la superficie del sol. Cerca de 1.368 W/m2 se liberan sobre la superficie de la atmósfera de tierra. Aunque la energía solar que alcanza la superficie de la Tierra es reducida debido al vapor de agua, absorción de la capa de ozono y dispersión por las moléculas del aire, todavía hay un montón de energía para que recolectemos. La cosecha de fotones para el uso en hogares, fábricas, oficinas, vehículos y electrónica personal ha llegado a ser práctica, y económica, y continuará aumentando su importancia en la ecuación del suministro de energía.
¿Qué es la energía fotovoltaica?
La energía fotovoltaica (abreviada PV) es la manera más directa de convertir la radiación solar en electricidad y se basa en el efecto fotovoltaico, que fue inicialmente observado por Henri Becquerel en 1839. Se define generalmente como la aparición de un voltaje eléctrico entre dos electrodos conectados a un sistema sólido o líquido al incidir luz brillante sobre este sistema. Prácticamente todos los dispositivos fotovoltaicos incorporan una juntura pn en un semiconductor a través de la cual se desarrolla el fotovoltaje. Estos dispositivos también se conocen como celdas solares. La absorción de la luz ocurre en un material semiconductor. El material semiconductor tiene que poder absorber una parte amplia del espectro solar.
Una célula fotovoltaica (PV) es una forma especializada de diodo semiconductor que convierte la luz visible, la radiación infrarroja, o la radiación ultravioleta directamente en electricidad. Cuando es utilizado para obtener electricidad de la luz del sol, este tipo de dispositivo se conoce como célula solar. Uno de los tipos más comunes de células solares se hace de silicio especialmente tratado, y se conoce como célula PV de silicio.
Estructura y operación
La estructura básica de una célula PV de silicio se muestra en la figura lateral. Se hace de dos tipos de silicio, llamados tipo P y tipo N. El corazón del dispositivo es la superficie en la cual estos dos tipos de materiales se juntan, conocida como la juntura P-N.
La tapa del conjunto es transparente de modo que la luz pueda caer directamente en la juntura.
El electrodo positivo se hace de costillaje de metal interconectado por alambres minúsculos. El electrodo negativo es una base metálica llamada el substrato, que se coloca en contacto con el silicio tipo N.
Cuando la energía radiante incide en la juntura P-N, un voltaje o una diferencia potencial se desarrolla entre los materiales tipo P y tipo N. Cuando una carga es conectada a la célula, la intensidad de la corriente a través de la carga aumenta en proporción con el brillo de la luz que incide en la juntura P-N de la célula - hasta un cierto punto crítico. Cuando la intensidad de luz aumenta más allá de este punto crítico, la corriente se nivela en un máximo llamado corriente de saturación. El cociente entre la potencia de salida disponible y la energía lumínica que cae sobre una célula PV se llama eficacia, o eficacia de conversión, de la célula.
De acuerdo con las características de absorción del material, la luz es absorbida en una región más o menos cerca de la superficie. Cuando los cuantos de luz se absorben, se generan pares de agujeros de electrón, y si se evita su recombinación pueden alcanzar la juntura donde son separados por un campo eléctrico. Incluso para un semiconductor de débil absorción como el silicio, la mayoría de los portadores se generan cerca de la superficie.
Tecnología
El efecto fotovoltaico permaneció como una curiosidad de laboratorio desde 1839 hasta 1959, cuando la primera celda solar de silicio fue desarrollada en los laboratorios de Bell en 1954 por Chapin y otros. Tenía ya una eficacia del 6%, que fue aumentada rápidamente hasta el 10%. El uso principal durante muchos años fue su aplicación en fuentes de alimentación de vehículos espaciales.
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2007 Solar Energy: Complete Guide to Solar Power and Photovoltaics, Practical Information on Heating, Lighting, and Concentrating, Energy Department Research (Two CD-ROM Set)
Pages: 51294, CD-ROM, Progressive Management [Read more]
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2008-2009 Essential Guide to Solar Energy, Photovoltaics, Solar Cells, Roof Panels, Heating, Lighting, Concentrating - Complete Guide with Practical Information ... and Government Research (Two CD-ROM Set)
Pages: 50258, CD-ROM, Progressive Management [Read more]
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2009 Consumer's Guide to Solar Power: Financing Solar Energy Systems, Heating Your Water with the Sun, Photovoltaics for Farms and Ranches, Government Guides (Ringbound Book and CD-ROM Set)
Pages: 139, Ring-bound, Progressive Management [Read more]
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2009 Homeowners Guide to Financing Solar Energy Systems, plus Heating Your Water with the Sun, Photovoltaics for Farms and Ranches (Ringbound)
Pages: 139, Ring-bound, Progressive Management [Read more]
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2009 Ultimate Guide to Solar Power and Photovoltaics - Detailed Home System Designs for Power and Heating, Case Studies, Financing, Farms and Ranches, Homebuilding (Ringbound Book plus Three CD-ROMs)
Pages: 274, Ring-bound, Progressive Management [Read more]
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Applications of Photovoltaics
Photovoltaics (PV) play a vital role in an energy-conscious society where the demand for cheap, convenient, and environmentally benign sources of energy is certain to increase. The range of applications is immense, encompassing many spheres of activity, from modern consumer electronics to the supply of power. Bringing together experts in their fields, Applications of Photovoltaics provides a stimulating account of the technical and economic aspects of the many areas that PV technology has been or is soon to be implemented. The book includes chapters on terrestrial applications of PV; PV for development, placing PV in the context of an energy policy for developing countries; PV for developing countries, which discusses the techno-economics of PV applications; PV systems for professional applications, which include hybrid systems; and low-power applications of PV for consumer, leisure, and other systems.Applications of Photovoltaics is appealing to all engineers, from energy advisors ... [Read more]
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Applied Photovoltaics
Martin Green, a co-author of Earthscans Applied Photovoltaics was one of the winners of the first Zayed Future Energy Prize announced at the World Future Energy Summit ... [Read more]
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Spy Point Solar Panel Recharger
Solar panel with aluminium tripod. Can be used to recharge lithium battery directly into IR-B and IR-C camera. Can also recharge any 12-volt battery. [Read more]
Brand: Spy Point
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Moultrie Feeders 6 Volt Solar Panel
Solar Power Deer Feeder Batery Charger- To ensure a continued source of power for your Moultrie Feeders, this constant trickle charger is ideal for areas in which charging feeder batteries may not be convenient. Chargers will not over charge your battery. 6-Volt DC Warranty: One year warranty Warranty: One year warranty Warranty: One year warranty Warranty: One year warranty Warranty: One year warranty Warranty: One year warranty [Read more]
Brand: Moultrie Feeders
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E790s Propane Gas Grill With Solar Panel & Single Side Burner On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. This Fire Magic Echelon BBQ Gas Grill also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, industry exclusive cast stainless E burners, stainless rod cooking grids, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. Includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, condiment holders, sliding propane cylinder tray with latch and four lockable swivel casters. Also includes 110... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Northern Industrial Solar Panel 11 Watt
12 Volt solar battery charger delivers 11 Watts for boats, RVs and back-up power. Works in all weather conditions. 14 3/4in.L x 11 1/2in.W x 1in.D. LED light shows when charging. Includes wiring, brackets and a solar panel voltage tester. All completely weather resistant. Application: Boats, RVs and back-up power, Watts: 11, Dimensions L x W (in.): 14 3/4 x 11 1/2 x 1, LED Light: Shows when charging, Material: White tempered glass, EVA resin, and a weatherproof film, plus aluminum frame, Panel Type: High-power module using 125mm square multicrystal cells, Panels (qty.): 1 High-power module using 125mm square multicrystal cells with 12.60% module conversion efficiency Modules come with bypass diode to minimize the power drop caused by shade conditions Textured cell surface to reduce the reflection of sunlight and BSF (Black Surface Field) structure to improve cell conversion efficiency: 14.11% 20ft. of wire, voltage tester and plug connectors to add more panels and mounting accessori... [Read more]
Brand: Northern Industrial Tools
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BatteryMINDer Solar Charging System 12 Volt, 15 Watt Panel, Model# SCC-015
Complete system for charging and maintaining up to four 12V batteries of any size/type/brand. Extends performance and life of 12V lead-acid, maintenance-free, marine deep cycle and sealed AGM batteries. Fully automatic desulfator dissolves life-shortening sulfate using safe low voltage high frequency pulses. Charges: 12V batteries, Desulfates: Yes, Charges Multiple Batteries (qty.): 4 Built-in automatic desulfator Not for use with aircraft batteries [Read more]
Brand: BatteryMINDer
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Backup Power Source Solar Standby Power System with 4 Solar Panels, Model# 3600WC Solar 4PV
Harness the power of the sun to generate your electricity and provide security during power outages. The BPS-3600-S solar package is engineered to allow you to create and use your own energy to power household appliances. Plus, each unit acts as an ultra-quiet emergency backup system that monitors your utility companys electric power 24/7. Add another 4 solar panels (Item# 462001, sold separately) and create your own energy to power household appliances. U.S.A. Requires a licensed electrician to install and wire into existing utility panel Application: Household appliances, Watts: 3600 running watts/7500 surge watts for up to 15 seconds, LED Light: Front panel, Material: Photovoltaic panel, Panels (qty.): 4, Battery Type: 190ah High capacity, Battery Included: Yes In the event of a power outage, the built-in automatic transfer switch provides backup emergency power and recharges with the power of the sun; no additional transfer switch required unless using in conjunction with a gene... [Read more]
Brand: Backup Power Source
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Backup Power Source Solar Standby Power System with 2 Solar Panels, Model# 3600WC Solar 2PV
Harness the power of the sun to generate your electricity and provide security during power outages. The 3600WC Solar 2PV solar package is engineered to allow you to create and use your own energy to power household appliances. Plus, each unit acts as an ultra-quiet emergency backup system that monitors your utility companys electric power 24/7. Add another 2 solar panels (Item# 462002, sold separately) and create your own energy to power household appliances. U.S.A. Requires a licensed electrician to install and wire into existing utility panel Application: Household appliances, Watts: 3600 running watts/7500 surge watts for up to 15 seconds, Panel Type: Photovoltaic panel, Panels (qty.): 2, Battery Type: 190ah high capacity, Battery Included: Yes In the event of a power outage, the built-in automatic transfer switch provides backup emergency power and recharges with the power of the sun; no additional transfer switch required unless using in conjunction with a generator Energy is ... [Read more]
Brand: Backup Power Source
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Backup Power Source 4-Panel Add-On Package for Item# 462003 (BPS 3600WC Solar 4PV Solar Standby Power System)
Harness the power of the sun to generate your electricity and provide security during power outages. Add another 4 solar panels to the BPS 3600WC Solar 4PV solar package and create your own energy to power household appliances. Plus, each unit acts as an ultra-quiet emergency backup system that monitors your utility companys electric power 24/7. U.S.A. Plug & Play no installation of power system required. Application: Add on, Panels (qty.): 4 Includes all the components to make the 24 Volt BPS-3600-S system capable of creating power from the sun [Read more]
Brand: Backup Power Source
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Backup Power Source 2-Panel Add-On Package for Item# 462004 (3600WC Solar 2PV Solar Standby Power System)
Harness the power of the sun to generate your electricity and provide security during power outages. Add another 2 solar panels to the 3600WC Solar 2PV solar package and create your own energy to power household appliances. Plus, each unit acts as an ultra-quiet emergency backup system that monitors your utility companys electric power 24/7. U.S.A. Plug & Play no installation of power system required. Application: Add on package Includes all the components to make the 24 Volt BPS-3600-S system (Item# 462004) capable of creating power from the sun [Read more]
Brand: Backup Power Source
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Northern Industrial Solar Panel 33 Watt
12 Volt solar battery charger delivers 33 Watts for boats, RVs and back-up power. Works in all weather conditions. 38in.L x 11 3/4in.W x 1in.D. LED light shows when charging. Includes wiring, brackets and a solar panel voltage tester. All completely weather resistant. 5-year limited warranty. Application: Boats, RVs and back-up power, Watts: 33, Dimensions L x W (in.): 38 x 11 3/4 x 1, LED Light: Shows when charging, Material: White tempered glass, EVA resin, and a weatherproof film, plus aluminum frame, Panel Type: 125mm square multicrystal cells, Panels (qty.): 1 High-power module using 125mm square multicrystal cells with 12.60% module conversion efficiency Modules come with bypass diode to minimize the power drop caused by shade conditions Textured cell surface to reduce the reflection of sunlight and BSF (Black Surface Field) structure to improve cell conversion efficiency: 14.11% 20ft. of wire, voltage tester and plug connectors to add more panels and mounting accessories [Read more]
Brand: Northern Industrial Tools
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Moultrie Camera Solar Power Panel
Ensure a continued power source for game cameras with the Moultrie Camera Solar Power Panel. It uses innovative software to combine a solar panel and a built-in 12-volt battery, extending camera life in the field. [Read more]
Brand: Moultrie Products, LLC
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Northern Industrial Tools 32-LED Lantern with Solar Panel
This versatile Northern Industrial lantern features 32 powerful LEDs and a 1 Watt solar panel to power the unit. Can also be charged with included AC adapter and 12V DC charger. Application: Lighting unit, Light Type: LED, Power Source: Solar panel with AC and DC adapter, Includes (qty.): 1 Lantern Durable ABS construction 6.29in.L x 6.29in.W x 15.35in.H [Read more]
Brand: Northern Tool and Equipment
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Ventamatic Solar-Powered Ventilating Fan with Panel - Gable-Mounted Ventilator, Model# VX2515SOLARGABL
Harness the energy of the sun to keep your attic cool and well-ventilated. Multi-crystal solar panel is installed on your roof to convert the natural energy provided by the sun. The solar panel converts the sunlight into energy, that energy is then sent to a DC motor that is factory installed in a gable-mounted ventilating fan. CFM: 1, 000, Works With: Gable Mounting, Solar Panel Wattage: 10, Motor Voltage: 17 DC, Blade Size (in.): 14, Cord Length (ft.): 25, Solar Panels Included (qty.): 1, Ventilators Included (qty.): 1 No energy costs Operates from sunrise to sunset No complicated wiring installation No fuel costs, waste or pollution Cools your attic extending the roof material life Reduces the load on your air conditioning system Helps protect attic insulation against mold and mildew in winter by removing moisture-filled air Sufficient for an attic up to 1500 sq. ft. with adequate net free area intake 17 Volt, thermally-protected DC motor [Read more]
Brand: Ventamatic
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Powerfilm R-28 28w Rollable Solar Panel Charger
PowerFilm R-28 Weight: 0. 6 lbs Operating Voltage: 15. 4 Operating Current: 1. 8 Rolled Dimensions: 4 x 14. 5 UnRolled Dimensions: 14. 5 x 79. 75 Ultra Light - Ultra Thin - Easy to Use PowerFilm and reg; integrated solar panels - thin film on plastic - are developed and manufactured with a proprietary roll process and they are truly rollable unlike other thin film technologies that are only somewhat flexible. PowerFilm solar panels are all monolithically integrated which eliminates the need for damage-prone manual connections of individual solar cells. PowerFilm is made of silicon, a natural resource in abundant supply. PowerFilm is Cadmium Free, unlike some other solar technologies, and performs well in diverse environments, including hot sun, and does not suffer from wasted over-voltage. Includes RA-2 - 12v Femail Cigarette Lighter Adapter - RA-11 - 15ft. Extension Cord with O-ring Battery Terminal Connectors - [Read more]
Brand: PowerFilm
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PowerFilm F15-3600 60w Folding Solar Panel Charger
PowerFilm F15-3600 The Powerfilm 60 Watt Foldable Solar Charger - F15 - 3600 - , the largest in the Foldable Solar chargers is very lightweight considering the power it produces. It weighs only 2. 6 lbs and produces 3. 6 Amps at 15. 4 Volts. Folded Weight: 2. 6 lbs Operating Voltage: 15. 4 Operating Current: 3. 6 Folded Dimensions: 10. 3 x 8. 9 x 2. 8 Unfolded Dimensions: 60 x 42 Output Cord and connectors All PowerFilm and reg; authorized accessories include marine-grade components with connectors that match the PowerFilm and reg; Series output cord. [Read more]
Brand: PowerFilm
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PowerFilm AA Battery Solar Panel Charger
AA Charger Ultra compact, ultra lightweight and yet very durable, the PowerFilm AA Foldable Solar Charger is ideal for everyday use. Charging either 2 AA batteries in 3 1/3 hours of full sun or 4 AA batteries in 6 2/3 hours of full sun, the AA Foldable Solar Charger provides highly-effective battery charging. Proprietary charging circuitry maximizes charge into the batteries, and charging lights indicate charging status and charge completion. The lightweight and durable PowerFilm flexible solar panels are integrated directly onto the fabric, keeping the weight of the charger to less than four spare batteries. Six grommets are built into the charger to allow for secure fastening to a pack or to the ground. Operating Voltage: 3. 6 Operating Current: 0. 6 Weight - Ounces -: 4. 18 - Without batteries - Folded Dimensions: 5. 5 x 3. 3 x 1. 4 Unfolded Dimensions: 5. 5 x 31. 5 [Read more]
Brand: PowerFilm
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NPower 15 Watt Amorphous Solar Panel
This NPower 15 Watt amorphous solar panel provides excellent performance even in cloudy conditions. It charges 12V car, truck, motorcycle, ATV, boat, personal watercraft or RV batteries. Ideal for deep cycle or multiple battery banks. Each panel provides 15 Watts of power; link up to 7 panels to produce additional wattage. Application: Charging 12V batteries, Watts: 15, Dimensions L x W x H (in.): 42 1/2 x 3 x 16, Material: Amorphous solar cell, Panels (qty.): 1, Battery Included: No, Includes: Panel, mounting screws, battery clamps, 12V plug Wiring included 42 1/2in.L x 3in.D x 16in.W Requires charge controller, Item# 121182 (sold separately) [Read more]
Brand: Npower
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Sunforce Amorphous Solar Panel - 50 Watt, Model# 50043
High-wattage solar panel works in sunny and cloudy conditions. Thanks to double junction technology, this panel is more efficient and wears out less over time, meaning you get more power for a longer time. Sturdy aluminum frame Thick glass High stabilized wattage rating Comes with an 8.5 Amp Sunforce ProSeries Charge Controller with pulse width modulation to speed up charging rate by up to 20% and maintain battery health Accessories and mounting brackets included 49in.L x 25in.W x 2in.H [Read more]
Brand: Sunforce
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NPower Monocrystalline Solar Panel - 180 Watt, 36 Volt
This versatile NPower solar panel is suitable for residential and commercial applications, along with boats, RVs and for backup power. Panels provide 14.5% module conversion efficiency per each 4.9in. x 4.9in. cell. Aluminum frame, tempered glass with EVA laminate and weatherproof film makes panels suitable for continuous outdoor use. Application: Residential/Commercial, Boats, RVs and backup power, Watts: 180, Dimensions L x W (in.): 62.2 x 31.8 x 1.4, Material: Tempered glass, EVA resin, weatherproof fiiml, Panel Type: High Efficiency monocrystalline solar panel, Panels (qty.): 1 Includes cable and MC4 plug system 62.2in.L x 31.8in.W x 1.4in.H [Read more]
Brand: Npower
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American Hunter 225lb. Barrel Feeder with RD Pro Kit, Battery, Solar Panel, and Varmint Zapper
Attract game and bring home a prized trophy with the American Hunter 225lb Barrel Feeder. [Read more]
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Ventamatic Solar Panel - 10 Watt, Model# VX SOLAR PANEL
Additional 10 Watt multi-crystal solar panel for use with Item#s 336620, 336622. Dimensions O.D. x H (in.): 18 x 13, Works With: Solar Fans, Solar Panel Wattage: 10, Solar Panels Included (qty.): 1 [Read more]
Brand: Ventamatic
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NPower Monocrystalline Solar Panel - 110 Watt, 12 Volt
This versatile NPower solar panel is suitable for residential and commercial applications, along with boats, RVs and for backup power. Panels provide 14.5% module conversion efficiency per each 4.9in. x 4.9in. cell. Aluminum frame, tempered glass with EVA laminate and weatherproof film makes panels suitable for continuous outdoor use. Application: Residential/Commercial, Boats, RVs and backup power, Watts: 110, Material: Tempered glass, EVA resin, weatherproof fiiml, Panels (qty.): 1 Includes cable and MC4 plug system 42.5in.L x 31.8in.W x 1.4in.H [Read more]
Brand: Npower
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NPower 5 Watt Amorphous Solar Panel
This NPower 5 Watt amorphous solar panel is ideal for cars, ATVs, PWCs, light duty trucks, SUVs and all 12V batteries. Its an effective way to replenish your batteries for quick starts. Clean and quiet operation. Built-in blocking diodes prevent discharging at night. Ultra-bright blue LED charge indicator. Use for larger applications such as boats, RV, tractors, antique cars, pumps, electric fences and more. No installation required. Application: Trickle charge car, boat and other 12V batteries, Watts: 5, Dimensions L x W x H (in.): 18 x 14 1/2 x 1 1/2, Material: Plastic, amorphous solar cells, Panels (qty.): 1, Battery Included: No, Includes: Panel, clamps, 12V plug Even works in low light and cloudy conditions Self-regulated unit will never overcharge your batteries; simply plug in and it begins working immediately with no maintenance Comes with 12V power source adapter, battery clamps and 4 precut holes and screws for mounting [Read more]
Brand: Npower
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E1060s Natural Gas Grill With Solar Panel, Single Side Burner & Magic View Window On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. Features Magic View Window allowing you to view your food without lifting the lid and losing valuable heat. This Fire Magic Echelon BBQ Gas Grill also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, industry exclusive cast stainless E burners, stainless rod cooking grids, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. Includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, con... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E1060s Natural Gas All Infrared Grill With Solar Panel, Single Side Burner & Power Hood On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. Features Power Hood allowing you to raise and lower the hood with a push of a button. Also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. Includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, condiment holders, sliding propane cylinder tray with latch and four lockable swivel casters. Also includes 110v power input plug to 12v ... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E660s All Infrared Propane Gas Grill With Solar Panel & Single Side Burner On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. This Fire Magic Echelon BBQ Gas Grill also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. Includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, condiment holders, sliding propane cylinder tray with latch and four lockable swivel casters. Also includes 110v power input plug to 12v power supply, sculptured curves on corners, fold... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E1060s Natural Gas All Infrared Grill With Solar Panel & Single Side Burner On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. Also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. Includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, condiment holders, sliding propane cylinder tray with latch and four lockable swivel casters. Also includes 110v power input plug to 12v power supply, sculptured curves on corners, folding paper towel holder and folding mul... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E660s Propane Gas Grill With Solar Panel & Single Side Burner On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. Also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, industry exclusive cast stainless E burners, stainless rod cooking grids, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. This Fire Magic Echelon BBQ Gas Grill also includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, condiment holders, sliding propane cylinder tray with latch and four lockable swivel casters. Also include... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E1060s Natural Gas Grill W/ Solar Panel, One Infrared Burner, Single Side Burner & Magic View Window On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. Features Magic View Window allowing you to view your food without lifting the lid and losing valuable heat. Also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, industry exclusive cast stainless E burner, stainless rod cooking grids, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. This gas grill also includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, condiment holders, sli... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E790s Natural Gas Grill W/ Solar Panel, One Infrared Burner & Single Side Burner On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. Also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, industry exclusive cast stainless E burner, stainless rod cooking grids, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. Includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, condiment holders, sliding propane cylinder tray with latch and four lockable swivel casters. Also includes 110v power input plug to 12v power supply,... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E790s Propane Gas All Infrared Grill With Solar Panel & Single Side Burner On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. This Fire Magic Echelon BBQ Gas Grill also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. Includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, condiment holders, sliding propane cylinder tray with latch and four lockable swivel casters. Also includes 110v power input plug to 12v power supply, sculptured curves on corners, fold... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E790s Natural Gas Grill With Solar Panel & Single Side Burner On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. This Fire Magic Echelon BBQ Gas Grill also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, industry exclusive cast stainless E burners, stainless rod cooking grids, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. Includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, condiment holders, sliding propane cylinder tray with latch and four lockable swivel casters. Also includes 110... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Fire Magic Gas Grills Echelon E1060s Natural Gas Grill With Solar Panel, Single Side Burner& Power Hood On Cart
This Fire Magic Echelon Gas Grill features sleek styling with seamless control panel, double-walled tear-drop hood with warming rack, 110v hard wired electrical supply which powers the 12 volt electric hot surface ignition system with flash tubes, angled halogen internal oven lamps, and 4-zone backlit digital meat and grill thermometer in control panel. Unique solar panel powers internal lights, rotisserie motor and ignition. Features Power Hood allowing you to raise and lower the hood with a push of a button. This Fire Magic Echelon BBQ Gas Grill also features a wood chip smoker drawer with dedicated burner, heat zone separators, feather lite easy lift hood, industry exclusive cast stainless E burners, stainless rod cooking grids, stainless valve manifold, polished Comfort Touch control knobs, disposable foil drip tray liners and water and rain resistant construction. Includes pre-assembled all stainless cabinet cart with dual storage doors inside shelves, condiment holders, slidin... [Read more]
Brand: Fire Magic
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Fig. : Photovoltaic module in sunlight generates direct current electricity.
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Terrestrial application of photovoltaics (PV) developed very slowly. Nevertheless,
PV fascinated not only the researchers, but also the general public.
The photovoltaic (pv) power technology uses semiconductor cells (wafers), generally several square centimeters in size. From the solid-state physics point of view, the cell is basically a large area p-n diode with the junction positioned close to the top surface. The cell converts the sunlight into direct current electricity. Numerous cells are assembled in a module to generate required power. Unlike the dynamic wind turbine, the pv installation is static, does not need strong tall towers, produces no vibration or noise, and needs no cooling. Because much of the current pv technology uses crystalline semiconductor material similar to integrated circuit chips, the production costs have been high. However, between 1980 and 1996, the capital cost of pv modules per watt of power capacity has declined from more than $20 per watt to less than $5 per watts.
In new markets, the near-term potentially large application of the pv technology is for cladding buildings to power air-conditioning and lighting loads. One of the attractive features of the pv system is that its power output matches very well with the peak load demand. It produces more power on a sunny summer day when the air-conditioning load strains the grid lines.
The pv cell manufacturing process is energy intensive. Every square centimeter cell area consumes a few kWh before it faces the sun and produces the first kWh of energy. However, the manufacturing energy consumption is steadily declining with continuous implementation of new production processes
Large-Scale PV Systems
A large-scale PV system, designed to provide power to many users, is sometimes called a solar farm. The heart of this type of power plant is a massive array of PV cells. Solar farms can be found scattered around the sunniest parts of the United States and several other nations. Depending on the size of the array, a solar farm can furnish anywhere from a few dozen kilowatts up to a hundred megawatts (100 MW) or more.
How it works
A large solar farm typically has thousands (and in some cases hundreds of thousands) of individual PV cells connected in a complex web of modules, panels, and arrays. In the most sophisticated large-scale solar farms, the arrays are set on equatorial mounts so they can be turned directly toward the sun during all the hours of daylight. A computer controlled mechanical system guides the bearings so the adjustment is optimum for every day of the year. The PV arrays are connected to the utility grid through power inverters and transformers. Figure shows the basic configuration. In the biggest solar farms, many inverters are connected in tandem, and their waves kept in phase. The combination feeds a step-up transformer that runs to a high-voltage AC transmission line.
Fig. : Simplified functional diagram of a solar-electric generator using a large PV
array, an inverter, and a step-up transformer for connection into the utility grid.
Major advantages of the photovoltaic power are as follows:
- direct conversion of solar radiation into electricity,
-no high temperatures,
-no pollution,
-PV modules have a very long lifetime,
-the energy source, the sun, is free, ubiquitous, and inexhaustible,
-PV is a very flexible energy source, its power ranging from microwatts to megawatts,
- short lead time to design, install, and start up a new plant,
- highly modular, hence, the plant economy is not a strong function of size,
- power output matches very well with peak load demands,
- static structure, no mechanical moving parts, hence, no noise,
- high power capability per unit of weight,
- longer life with little maintenance because of no moving parts,
- highly mobile and portable because of light weight |
El uso terrestre de la energía fotovoltaica (PV) se desarrolló muy lentamente. Sin embargo, la PV fascinó no sólo a los investigadores, sino también al público en general.
La tecnología de la energía fotovoltaica (PV) utiliza las celdas de semiconductor (obleas), generalmente de varios centímetros cuadrados de tamaño. Desde el punto de vista de la física del estado sólido, la celda es básicamente un diodo p-n de área extensa con la juntura colocada cerca de la superficie superior. La célula convierte directamente la luz del sol en electricidad. Numerosas celdas son montadas en un módulo para generar la energía requerida. A diferencia de la turbina de viento dinámica, la instalación de la PV es estática, no necesitan torres altas y fuertes, no producen ninguna vibración o ruido, y no necesitan enfriamiento. Debido a que mucha de la tecnología PV actual utiliza material similar al semiconductor cristalino de los circuitos integrados, los costes de producción han sido altos. Sin embargo, entre los años 1980 y 1996, el coste de capital de módulos PV por vatio de capacidad de energía disminuyo en más de $20 por vatio menos de $5 por vatio.
En nuevos mercados, el uso potencialmente grande a corto plazo de la tecnología PV es en la provisión a los edificios de energía para el aire acondicionado y la iluminación. Una de las características atractivas del sistema PV es que la salida de energía se adapta muy bien a la demanda de carga máxima. Produce más energía en un día asoleado de verano en que la carga del aire acondicionado recarga mas las líneas de suministro de energía eléctrica.
El proceso de fabricación de la celda PV es intensivo en energía. Cada centímetro cuadrado de área de la celda consume algunos KVh antes de hacer frente al sol y producir el prime KVh de energía. Sin embargo, el consumo de energía de fabricación está disminuyendo constantemente con la puesta en práctica continua de los nuevos procesos de producción.
Sistemas PV en gran escala
Un sistema PV en gran escala, diseñado para proporcionar energía a muchos usuarios, se llama a veces granja solar. El corazón de este tipo de central eléctrica es un conjunto masivo de células PV. Las granjas solares se pueden encontrar dispersas en las partes más soleadas de los Estados Unidos y de varias otras naciones. Dependiendo del tamaño del conjunto, una granja solar puede suministrar en cualquier lugar desde algunas docenas de kilovatios hasta cientos megavatios (100 MW) o más.
Cómo trabaja
Una granja solar grande tiene típicamente millares (y en algunos casos centenares de millares) de células PV individuales conectadas en una red compleja de módulos, paneles, y conjuntos. En las granjas solares grandes más sofisticadas, los conjuntos se colocan en montajes ecuatoriales de manera que puedan ser girados directamente hacia el sol durante todas las horas con luz del día. Un sistema mecánico controlado por ordenador dirige los cojinetes de manera que el ajuste sea óptimo para cada día del año. Los conjuntos de celdas PV están conectados a la red de uso general a través de inversores y de transformadores de energía. La figura muestra la configuración básica. En las granjas solares más grandes, muchos inversores son conectados en tándem, y sus frecuencias se mantienen en fase. La combinación alimenta un transformador elevador que hace funcionar una línea de transmisión de alto voltaje de CA.
Fig. : ( derecha ) Diagrama funcional simplificado de un generador eléctrico solar usando un gran conjunto de celdas PV, un inversor, y un trasformador elevador de tensión para su conexión a la red eléctrica domiciliaria.
Las ventajas más importantes de la energía fotovoltaica son:
- conversión directa de la radiación solar en electricidad,
- sin temperaturas altas,
- sin contaminación,
- los módulos PV tienen un tiempo de vida muy largo,
- la fuente de energía, el sol, es gratis, está en todos lados, e inagotable,
- la PV es una fuente de energía muy flexible, su potencia se extiende de microvatios a los megavatios,
- plazo de ejecución corto para su diseño, instalación, y puesta en marcha de una nueva planta,
- altamente modular, por lo tanto, la economía de la planta no es una función altamente dependiente del tamaño,
- la producción de energía satisface muy bien los picos demanda de carga máxima,
- estructura estática, sin piezas móviles mecánicas, por lo tanto, ningún ruido,
- capacidad de potencia más elevado por la unidad de peso
• una vida más larga con poco mantenimiento debido a falta de piezas móviles.
• altamente móvil y portable debido a peso ligero. |
Captura del dióxido de carbono y posible disminución del "efecto invernadero" .
Los ingenieros se están ocupando de maneras de capturar y de almacenar el dióxido de carbono, el principal gas que produce el efecto invernadero, pero las centrales eléctricas a carbón, identificadas comúnmente como el villano más grande en cuanto a emisiones en el mundo, pueden no ser el mayor centro de atención.
Por el contrario, los ingenieros y los responsables políticos dicen que puede ser más fácil y menos costoso capturar el dióxido de carbono en las refinerías de petróleo, las fábricas de productos químicos, las fábricas de cemento y las plantas de etanol, que emiten una cantidad mucho más pura del gas que una chimenea del carbón.
El dióxido de carbono compone típicamente solamente el 10 a 12 por ciento de las emisiones de una planta del carbón, hacen notar los ingenieros, y el gas se mezcla por lo tanto con agentes contaminadores que son difíciles de separar.
El secuestro de una tonelada de dióxido de carbono de una fábrica de productos químicos tendría el mismo efecto sobre la atmósfera de la Tierra que almacenar una tonelada de una planta de carbón, enfatizan científicos y ejecutivos del sector industrial. El "secuestro no es una tecnología del carbón - es una estrategia de la disminución del gas de efecto invernadero," dicen.
El Departamento de Energía de los E.E.U.U. anunció inversiones en concesiones para desarrollar la tecnología, conocida generalmente como captura de carbón.
El dióxido de carbono compone cerca del 20 por ciento del gas resultante de la producción del hidrógeno, dos veces la concentración encontrada en una corriente de gas de una planta típica del carbón. La recuperación del mismo de esta corriente en vez que una chimenea de la planta de carbón sería por lo tanto más barata y más simple.
En la industria de petróleo, las perforadoras por años han accedido a los depósitos subterráneos de dióxido de carbono, trayéndolo a la superficie y moviéndolo luego por la tubería a los campos petrolíferos. Luego lo inyectan en los campos para presionar al petróleo forzándolo a la superficie en un proceso llamado "recuperación asistida" del petróleo.
Si la industria de petróleo dejara el dióxido de carbono natural donde está, y utilizara el dióxido de carbono de las plantas industriales en su lugar, menos dióxido de carbono producido por el hombre se incorporaría a la atmósfera, dicen los expertos.
Otra fuente probable de corrientes puras de dióxido de carbono son las plantas que refinan el gas natural. El gas natural sale generalmente de la tierra mezclado con dióxido de carbono, que los vendedores de gas natural normalmente quitan para que el gas natural se pueda considerar de "calidad de tubería." Ese dióxido de carbono es a veces reinyectado en la tierra, pero a veces venteado.
También hay los hornos de cemento, que producen una corriente casi pura de dióxido de carbono.
El gas natural tiene solamente la mitad de dióxido de carbono en su contenido que el gas producido en una planta de carbón. Por lo tanto el equipo necesario para separar y secuestrar el dióxido de carbono en una planta de gas sería la mitad de grande que la maquinaria para una planta de carbón del mismo tamaño, y costaría menos para construir y para funcionar.
Los combustibles producidos a partir de la biomasa, derivados de la madera, desechos y el alcohol, podrían ofrecer una oportunidad incluso mejor para la captura del carbón. Si una planta eléctrica quema pedazos de madera u otro material vegetal en lugar del carbón mineral, produce una corriente de humo de la cual el dióxido de carbono podría ser extraído y luego inyectado profundamente en la tierra.
La ventaja es que si un árbol se corta y se quema en una caldera, un nuevo árbol puede crecer en su lugar, y absorber el dióxido de carbono de la atmósfera. Eso convierte el proceso en "carbono negativo" para cada tonelada quemada, y la cantidad de dióxido de carbono en la atmósfera disminuiría. |
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